Viewing Islam exclusively as a religion has its limitations (Humphreys, 1991). Renowned Islamic scholar Muhammad Iqbal emphasized this oversimplification, highlighting that Islam encompasses more than just religion (Sevea, 2012).
The term ‘religion’ itself is not explicitly used in the Qur’an or Hadeeth, which are the primary sources of Islamic teachings. The word ‘religion’ has its etymological roots in Old French and Latin, suggesting that it may impose constraints on the broader concept of a non-secular divine system. In the Arabic language, the word religion is synonymous to ‘madhab’ (Murad, 2001), which transliterates as ‘school’ or ‘school of thought’ sharing a common doctrine (Humphreys, 1991).
Typically, religion is characterised by three fundamental aspects: faith in God, acts of worship and prayer, and cultural customs, rituals, and rites (Ahmed, 2001). However, the term ‘religion’ itself is essentially foreign to Islamic scriptures. Instead, in the Qur’an, Islam is referred to as ‘deen,’ as seen in various verses (Qur’an 3:83; 3:85; 4:125; 5:3; 12:76; 24:2; 37:53). This term can be interpreted as a comprehensive system, an order, a framework, or a structure. ‘Deen’ implies a complete collective system, and Islam represents the entirety of this ‘deen’ (Ahmed, 2001).
Gümüsay (2015) emphasises the significance of disentangling idiomatic references and concepts associated with Islam when examining them through the lens of literature, rather than within the framework of modern-day nomenclature. According to Gümüsay, contemporary Islamic concepts have often been influenced and commodified (ibid.). The contemporary Islamic world is frequently perceived in reflection of Western extremity (Yazdi, 1992). Building upon Gümüsay’s argument, I contend that contemporary Islamic countries are vassal states, distorting historical Islamic identity and altering Islamic ideologies to fit within an individualistic capitalist framework. This often results in a weakened or even false representation of Islam.
To clearly differentiate between these modified concepts and the authentic teachings of Islam, I refer to the latter as the ‘Islamic Perspective’ (IP). Figure 1 illustrates the areas where these perspectives overlap, helping to distinctly identify the IP.
Figure 1 Conceptual Difference of Islamic Perspective
Islamic System Ethos
The early Islamic ethos originated during the last ten years of Muhammad’s (PBUH) life and continued after his passing in 632 AD (11 AH). This period saw the succession of four caliphs, also known as the “khulfaiye rashidoon” in Arabic, which translates to the “rightly guided” or “perfect successors” (Ali-Agan, 2016). The first caliph, Abu Bakr (RA), reigned from 632 to 634 AD, followed by Umar ibn al-Khattab (RA) from 634 to 644 AD, then Uthman ibn Affan (RA) from 644 to 656 AD, and finally Ali ibn Abi Talib (RA) from 656 to 661 AD. During this time, Islam evolved into a comprehensive system (deen) that encompassed socio-political, economic, and religious aspects. This historical period serves as a reasonable point of comparison for ideal IP in the contemporary era (Nadvi, 2012). The collective system encompassed political, social, and economic aspects, including laws related to criminal justice, inheritance, civil matters, witness testimony, the prohibition of interest (riba), and the obligation of almsgiving (zakah). Notably, this system led to the complete eradication of interest-based finance, liberating a marginalised portion of society from financial oppression (ibid.).
The era witnessed advancements in international and local trade, with a focus on importing and exporting permissible (halal) goods while prohibiting the consumption of illicit items like alcohol (khamr). Trade practices were governed by principles that discouraged vagueness (gharar) and speculation (maisir or qimar) (Adinugraha, 2013). Furthermore, various tax instruments to ensure economic equity were introduced, ensuring equal rights and opportunities to engage in economic activities, as explained by Basri (ibid.). Another notable development was the establishment of the office of Hisbah, which served as a form of ombudsman responsible for overseeing the marketplace, appointed by the community and supervised by the caliph (Hamarneh, 1964).
Thinking in Islamic Perspective
The essence of the social, economic, and political system within IP is deeply rooted in morality and ethics (Beekun & Badawi, 2005). This perspective transcends various aspects, including spirituality, commerce, and challenges inequality (Barlas, 2002). Within this approach, there are sources of thought that have long been oppressed by prevailing epistemological systems. Exploring these sources can offer effective building blocks for socio-economic prosperity (Hosein, 1997). A prime example can be seen in the entrepreneurial qualities exhibited by Muhammad (PBUH), his successors, and followers. Their profound social impact continues to impact society today. Additionally, there exist nuances of value-based servant leadership (Beekun, 2012) and revolutionary interpretations of patriarchal structures (Tlaiss & McAdam, 2021).
Unfortunately, due to a prevailing secular individualistic epistemic approach, the depth of this scholarship often goes unexplored and is sometimes even intentionally misconstrued to serve motives of ignorance, ostracization, and oppression. To truly comprehend Islam as a system, one must delve into the ontology of its epistemology. Within the Qur’anic epistemological framework, concepts require critical analysis through insight and rationality. This analysis reveals the fundamental humanity of these ideas.
For instance, drawing a parallel from Freudian concepts such as the ego (Freud, 1949), IP conceptualizes freedom as a state that originates from the inner struggle of the “qalb” (analogous to Freud’s ego) against “nafs” or desires (similar to Freud’s id). Moreover, the “rooh” (superego) in IP transcends dimensional limits, extending beyond societal or material constraints.
Freudian theory, from its secular standpoint, views the superego as structurally restrictive (as per structuration theory). In contrast, IP seeks to embrace the superego (rooh) and considers it a source of moral liberation. The secular perspective often emphasises the ego as the guiding force. Conversely, IP seeks to manage or control the restless ego (qalb). Failure to do so can lead to the ego dominating in a self-contained shell, resulting in individualistic thinking, material dependence, and indulgence in worldly desires that promotes hyper-consumerism. Moreover, the Arabic word “jihaad” loosely translates to “strive or struggle” (both externally and internally) directly challenges the ego and the individualist thinking (Zepp, 2000). IP conceptualises the pursuit of the highest levels of liberation from self-desires through “jihaad al-nafs” (struggle from desires). In this pursuit, the superego and ego, work together harmoniously to attain divine enlightenment through “tazkiyat al-nafs” (purification of the self).
Qur’anic Epistemology
Hartung (2014) highlights a critical issue with hermeneutic thinking, specifically its limitations within the context of modernity. In IP, the primary source of knowledge is divine revelation as found in the Qur’an, the holy book of Islam, and the Hadeeth, which encompasses the sayings and actions of Muhammad (PBUH). It is well-documented that Muhammad (PBUH) made it obligatory to seek knowledge Sunan Ibn Majah, Vol. 1, Book 1, Hadith 224. Islam actively encourages the pursuit of knowledge, fostering the evaluation of sources, and embracing a diverse range of methodologies within the history of intellectual inquiry (Hosein, n.d.). In doing so, IP seamlessly integrates divine and rational sources in the quest for knowledge.
Scholars of Islam often argue that the superiority of Islam lies in its morality-based ontological approach, deeply rooted in multi-level collective well-being (Hosein, 1992). Understanding God within this framework is considered incomplete due to our limitations in contemplating concepts beyond the constraints of time and space. Human comprehension is inherently limited in fully grasping the divine.
Figure 2 Planer Projection Illustrating Knowledge of God (Jawaid, 2021)
Throughout history, Islamic scholars have made substantial efforts to bridge the gap between divine thinking and scientific exploration (Krause, 2021). This synthesis of faith in God and various schools of science has given rise to renowned scholars who have significantly contributed to various fields of knowledge. Examples include Ibn Sina (Avicenna) in philosophy and medicine, Al-Farabi in philosophy, Al-Khwarizmi in mathematics, Ibn Rushd (Averroes) in philosophy and legal theory, and Al-Ghazali in theology and spirituality (Rahman, 2011). The scholarship of the Qur’an remains one of the most vital and ontologically diverse disciplines. Its epistemic approach is crucially emerging as a movement. An evident example is in pragmatic realizations within mindful cognitive sciences (Scharmer, 2016). Ibn Khaldun, a contentious Islamic scholar of his time, attempted to conceptualize Islamic science within the framework of physical material science (Rahman, 2011).
Khaldun identified three levels of knowledge-seeking: first, personal self-development, second, social actualization, and third, ontological pursuit in the divine realm (ibid.).
In the context of IP, knowledge or “ilm” extends beyond mere spatial understanding of truth. It encompasses awareness of things and instincts, progressing through various degrees of affirmation that resonate with the truth. “Ilm” can be defined comprehensively, encapsulating theory, action, and education (Azram, 2012). In this perspective, Knowledge is not simple information, but it requires to act upon belief and commit to the goals in a continuum revitalising fashion. The theory of knowledge within IP does not confine itself to epistemology but blends knowledge, social action, and insight (ibid.), thus inhibits an experiential role that takes on moral and socio-political dimensions.
While the Qur’an is considered the ultimate source of knowledge, reason (aql) must be applied in conjunction with divine revelation. Intellectual faculties play a crucial role in understanding the world, interpreting religious texts, and engaging in rational discourse. Qur’anic epistemology emphasizes the importance of observation and empirical inquiry in acquiring knowledge, encouraging the study of the natural world as a reflection of God’s wisdom and design. This is evident in the recurring verse, “Which of the favours of your Lord will you deny?” Qur’an 55:69, which urges contemplation of the spatial world.
In addition to external sources, Qur’anic epistemology combines the derivation of knowledge of God through inward thinking, personal experiences, and reflection (Iqbal, 1930). This is grounded in a higher morality derived from the Qur’an. This inward thinking can be likened to instinct or insight and involves ‘inward conditioning,’ as described by Scharmer (2018). This process entails transcending conditioned thought patterns to access deeper levels of awareness and transformation. While language and cultural contexts may differ, the underlying principles of self-awareness, introspection, and inner transformation are shared between these frameworks. Inward thinking emphasises self-awareness, self-reflection, and introspection to attain deeper awareness. Islamic teachings stress the importance of transcending and purifying the ego (qalb) to connect with higher moral, spiritual, and divine truths.
Rahman (1958) draws upon the theory of emanation from the Greek philosopher Plotinus to understand God within IP. This theory outlines a sequence of emanations, starting with our experience of the natural world, followed by the heavens, planets, universe, and ultimately, the ‘First’ being God. God remains unknowable due to our limitations in comprehending the material world around us. Our knowledge of God or ultimate truth is influenced by these emanations. Rahman introduced the concept of ‘prophetic intellect’ within IP, representing a source of truth available to individuals, while religion as a system serves the masses. Rahman appreciated that; Islamic scholars came to define the doctrine of Islamic intellect inferred sources from theories of Greek philosophers like Aristotle.
Lastly, engaging in inward thinking through repetitive practices like dhikr (remembrance of God), salah (obligatory prayer a form of meditation), and tafakkur (contemplation), shifts the focus from the external world to the inner world. This allows individuals to break free from the constraints of ego-driven desires and conditioned thoughts, gaining insight into their true nature and aligning with the divine will Qur’an 18:28. This process is summarized by Jawaid (2021) through his interpretation of the Qur’anic verse (24:35), known as Ayat-un-Noor (the verse of light). The verse exemplifies the search for divine guidance or knowledge of God’s light within the darkness of the world. The lamp (misbah) represents the devoted believer, and when one accepts divine guidance, it’s as if their essence is illuminated. Salah (obligatory prayer) renews this light, preventing it from diminishing, and zakah (almsgiving) spatially spreads it, removing darkness from the world. This raises questions about the inherent morality possessed by individuals, suggesting that given the opportunity, human beings tend to abide by moral and ethical laws in the interest of the collective.
Origins, Eschaton and Eternal Existence
While the scientific perspective predominantly delves into physical and material considerations, the Qur’an places a strong emphasis on the meta-dimensional facets as the fundamental origin of the universe. The Qur’an serves as the key to unlocking profound knowledge, shedding light on the inception, perpetual existence, and ultimate culmination of eternity in the meta-dimensional realm (Qur’an 2:156).
In the Qur’an, we encounter the account of initial creation. “God first created the injeel or angels from noor or light, then the jinn or genie from naar or fire” (Qur’an 38:76), and subsequently, Adam (PBUH) was fashioned from clay or dust of the earth (Qur’an 38:76; 20:55; 3:59). Notably, the choice of “noor” (light) and “naar” (fire) carries profound significance, noor and naar have similar etymological origins (Jawaid, 2021). While “noor” symbolizes purity, “naar,” despite its similar properties, embodies the potential for antagonistic destructive energy. God designated Adam (PBUH) as His vicegerent (khalifa) on Earth (Qur’an 6:165). When the angels questioned this choice, expressing concerns of human corruption, God’s response, “you know not that I know” (Qur’an 2:30), underscores a profound theme of inscrutable wisdom of God’s divine plan.
However, Satan (iblis) refused to prostrate before Adam (PBUH), asserting his superiority being created from fire (Qur’an 2:34). This marked the first documented act of disobedience and wickedness, exemplifying the original sins of pride and envy (Fairlie, 2015) and introducing humanity’s eternal adversary. These verses hint at a prior state of equilibrium and imply a prevalent virtue and obedience inherent in all creation. The angels embodied an idealized moral state, free from wickedness (Qur’an 16:50), within a structuration theory context that intertwines morally inclined agency within a divine structure.
Embracing the epistemic role of humanity as stewards of God on Earth is pivotal for the practical application of Qur’anic teachings across various dimensions, encompassing the social, political, economic, and ecological spheres. Henri de Lubac (Flipper, 2015) elaborates, the essence of human existence lies in the pursuit of discovering ‘authentic transcendence,’ as opposed to a shallow substitute found in ‘atheist humanism.’
The Qur’an also alludes to eschaton. Eschatology is the theological study of final human events and the fulfilment of divine prophecies. And it is a central theme in the (Qur’an 3:185). And it is manifested by the concept of the Day of Judgment (qiyamah), a cosmic event marking the culmination of human deeds as humanity’s journey progresses towards a divine reckoning. It emphasizes the moral dimension as the underlying purpose.
Shoemaker (2014) juxtaposes Muhammad’s (PBUH) role as a harbinger of eschaton with his message of ethical monotheism, considering them as complementary facets working toward advocating social and economic reform for the marginalised. Eschatology has garnered growing scholarly interest. It elucidates the evolving shifts in epistemic, cultural, monetary, and geopolitical paradigms in the global order (Layne, 2018). Signs of eschaton encompass spatial, social, political, and environmental changes. Scholars of Christianity perceive the distortion in sense of time as one sign of the end referring to it as a ‘crisis of temporality’ critiquing the loss in ‘eternal time’ due to a loss in spiritual connection, explained Lubac (Flipper, 2015).
Islamic eschatology puts to perspective collective versus individual gains. Thus, draws distinction between temporal (in this world) and eternal (in the afterlife) motivations. It shapes existential purpose and brings out the dichotomies of material well-being and spiritual revival (Walls, 2008).